Formed by sharing electrons. The strengths: Single < Double < Triple. The number of bonds is called the bond order. Higher bond order, smaller bond length, more energy. Coordinate bonds are bonds where both electrons originate from the same atom.

Lewis structure

Useful formula for finding number of bonds: Octet rule: Atoms need 8 bonds to be full. However, there are Octet rule exceptions

VSEPR Model

Covalent network structures

PropertyDiamondGraphiteGrapheneFullerene C60Nanotubes
Network StructureEach carbon is bonded sp³ hybridized to 4 others. Tetrahedral.Carbon is sp² hybridized, bonded to 3 others. Trigonal planar. Layers held by broken dispersion. Remaining valence electrons are delocalized.2D layer of graphite.Sphere of 60 carbon atoms, 20 hexagons, and 12 pentagons. sp² hybridized, bonds with 3 others.Almost cylindrical, with strong covalent bonds and delocalized electrons.
Electrical ConductivityNoYesYesNo, although delocalized, there is no movement across molecules.Yes.
Thermal ConductivityBetter than metalsNo, unless parallel to heat flow.Thermal conductivity is very good.LowGood
AppearanceTransparent, lustrous crystal.Grey crystalline solid.Almost transparent.Black or purple.Cylindrical
Physical PropertiesHardest known natural substance. Brittle. High melting point.Soft and slippery due to layering. Good lubricant. Good conductor.Thinnest material. Also strongest.Light and strong. Can melt; pliable. Can react with K to form superconductors.Lightweight.
UsesJewelry, cutting other metals, glass tools.Pencil, dry lubricants, electrode rods in electrolysis.Microscopes, applications being developed.Nanotubes, lubricants, medical uses.Sensors, electrodes.

Molecules are discrete. Networks are continuous, covalently bonded chains. They have many names. Macromolecule, network, giant molecules. Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element.